Unemployment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Joblessness - Research Paper Example In a nation where the economy is constantly developing, the ways of life continue improving, infrastructural advancement is experienced and the degree of wrongdoing is low.In this report, the analyst will endeavor to break down and clarify the reasons and impacts of joblessness and swelling, points of interest and hindrances of the current financial and fiscal approach, adequacy of different monetary changes and impacts of the equalization of installments on trade rates concerning the Nigerian economy. Provincial urban relocation This happens when individuals in the rustic territories move to urban zones looking for employment.Henryexplains the country urban movement regarding push - pull factors (34). The push factors incorporate the weight coming about because of a rising man-land proportion in the country territories and the presence of underemployment from occasional pattern of the absence of framework exercises that make the rustic life ugly. He connects rustic urban movement to the ugliness of provincial life as a result of absence of fundamental courtesies. At the point when young people move to the urban territories looking for worthwhile business, there is centralization of social civilities that prompts disregarding of provincial zones in the distribution of social and financial chances. Fast populace development The 2006 statistics in Nigeria put the populationat 140,431,791 individuals making it the most crowded nation in Africa. As indicated by the CIA Worldfact book, the populace development pace of Nigeria was 2.54% in 2013. On the off chance that the current development rate proceeds, the populace could arrive at 170million by year 2020. Fast populace development prompts quick development of work, increment in flexibly of employments which the economy can't absorb.Bernice bolsters that unreasonable gracefully of laboris related with the pace of development of the populace in that size and development pace of work power relies upon the size and

Exploring the Bible through literaty genre Essay

Investigating the Bible through literaty sort - Essay Example tice during the time those occasions had occurred, and notwithstanding that, a large portion of the tales were written in illustrations that solitary old language or writing can best depict the message. The most testing piece of considering the bible’s writing is, understanding its actual significance and the message it needs to partake in each shade of the words utilized. Thusly with the end goal for individuals to additionally comprehend the book of scriptures, writers attempted to interpret it in English. English has been recognized and nearly spoken around the world, there would be at any rate a couple of number of individuals from various nations who comprehend, compose and communicate in English, anyway the issue that encompasses language doesn't end with interpretation. Each country or nation and even culture practices and uses their own language, this is the means by which they convey best inside that gathering, and is increasingly known to be their first language. What's more, to make correspondence considerably increasingly successful for situating and showing the youthful ones, their writing depended on that language. Grasping the unique circumstance (voiced or writing) is the manner by which an individual comprehends the words used to finish the message of the story, and more often than not different nationalities that has an alternate language instead of English would interpret the importance of the word dependent on their direction, and more often than not, the word that is deciphered would have an alternate significance and bearing. One genuine case of first language interpretation is in p23. Genisis 2: 22-23 of the material. â€Å"And the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a lady, and brought her unto the man. Furthermore, Adam stated, â€Å"This is presently bone of my bones, and substance of my tissue: she will be called Woman, since she was removed from Man.† The writing was initially written in Hebrew and later on interpreted in English word per word, a characteristic English arranged individual perusing this would offer importance to the writing, since English is the person’s first language, and it would go from

Drunk Driving Essay Example for Free

Flushed Driving Essay Consistently a great many individuals kick the bucket from alcoholic driving. Some endure a fender bender, yet others aren’t so fortunate. Smashed drivers ought to have a bigger number of disciplines than what we have today. It would make the streets significantly more secure on the off chance that we had more cops out, make the blood liquor level lower than it is presently, and make the disciplines stricter. This would of expert cops and law implementations are profoundly prepared, capable experts who here and there are furnished with imperative abilities required. There aren’t enough of them to watch out for the entire town. Consistently there is continually something awful going on in this town. They ought to carry out their responsibility not simply driving around in their vehicles sitting idle. At the point when cops carry out their responsibility many individuals get frantic â€Å"Many individuals accused of alcoholic driving dissent that their driving was fine. They accept either that the official concocted a rationalization to pull them over, or that the â€Å"mistake† that the official watched was proper or had nothing to do with their driving†. The law implementations need to step up their game and shield us from alcoholic drivers and different things. Likewise with any criminal allegation, an individual accused of driving while inebriated or driving impaired is assumed blameless until demonstrated liable. In the event that liable is built up, the punishment will rely upon state law, just as on any disturbing conditions and litigants collaboration with the police. A considerable lot of the disciplines the law gives individuals are sensible yet they have to make the disciplines for alcoholic driving higher and uphold them more. In such a case that they don’t our streets will deteriorate and individuals won’t have a sense of security at evening when they go out. â€Å"In a few states in the event that you get a DUI, you get a programmed suspension of violator’s licenses. The lengths of a suspension of 45 days to one year, Forty-Three states expect guilty parties to introduce start interlocks on their vehicles. These gadgets are fit for examining a drivers breath, and the start is opened just if the driver has not been driving. †(Larson) â€Å"A fourth offense working while inebriated will be crime on the off chance that it happens inside five years of a prior offense. Start interlock gadgets will be required for recurrent wrongdoers and first-time guilty parties at or over a 0. 15 blood liquor level. †(Drunken Driving Law changes) Over the most recent 10 years there were twenty-5,000 individuals that passed on from alcoholic driving mishaps. The majority of the individuals that were driving that were tanked lived, yet the individuals in the vehicle with the alcoholic driver passed on. On September 3, 2012 Taylor moon spent away that morning. The was just 20 years of age and experienced each day without limit. Taylor consistently realized he would kick the bucket by accomplishing something he cherished. This was driving quick cruisers and gathering with his companions. That morning he was leaving a gathering to return home his blood liquor level was past 0. 08 percent. He wasn’t watching where he was proceeding to go directly into the correct side of a vehicle that was coming. Taylor flew over the windshield were my companion AJ that was in the vehicle saw his face and body when Taylor kicked the bucket. A. J didn’t comprehend what to do the primary individual he called was Anthony; nobody comprehended what A. J was stating on the grounds that he was crying to such an extent. They didn’t know Taylor that well. They despite everything went to his memorial service and conversed with his family. On the off chance that Taylor would have never jumped on his cruiser alcoholic that morning he would at present be alive today. His loved ones will all miss him beyond all doubt. â€Å"God has my child now and doesn’t need to feel any more agony. † People could gain from Taylor’s botches and not drive under the influence by any stretch of the imagination. A few people don’t get their loved ones will miss them more than they will ever know, since when they are gone their family is still here on earth with the agony of realizing they would never return. Families are the most significant ones since they have consistently been here to advise them not to drink and chaos their life up. The vast majority don’t care they think it’s fun and it makes them look cool, yet it’s not cool. It executes you inside in any event, when you not dead outside. From the primary taste, liquor is retained into the circulatory system and arrives at the mind. In spite of the fact that you’re not mindful of it, there is and impedance of cerebrum work, which weakens further the more you drink. â€Å"In most expresses, an individual with a blood liquor level that surpasses . 08 percent is qualified for a DUI whenever pulled over. †Most individuals don't have a clue, anyway the law needs to bring down the blood liquor level on the grounds that regardless of whether they drink one brew they can at present execute arch one of every an auto crash regardless of whether they haven’t had that much. It despite everything plays with your psyche and visual perception. â€Å"Alcohol debilitation among drivers associated with deadly crashes is around multiple times higher around evening time than during the day. † (Get MADD) We have to end this entire pattern now. Tanked driving ought to be authorized and individuals shouldn’t drink. On the off chance that they do drive, at that point somebody calm needs to tail them and ensure they are alright and don’t get injured either. Making the blood liquor level lower would be a food activity for our town and the world. â€Å"Studies are frequently imperfect or the outcomes are puzzled by different realities, that there is little proof that bringing down as far as possible from.  The actuality that presenting a lower BAC limits have no essentially have an evil spirit stable effect on traffic security ought not be taken to recommend that legal BAC limits have no an incentive in endeavors to control the liquor crash issue. The capacity of a BAC breaking point might be to educate the open that the utilization of liquor past a specific point is viewed as unlawful and hazardous when joined with driving. This is on the grounds that the overall population has just a shallow comprehension of the connection between liquor utilization and BAC especially as far as their own conduct. Less capable residents tend to settle on poor choices concerning driving in the wake of drinking. They don’t agree to as far as possible and are probably not going to change their conduct trying to conform to another lower limit. Provided that this is true, a decrease in the legitimate BAC limit, all by itself, would not be relied upon to substantially affect the predominance of impeded driving or liquor related accidents. Our basic audit of the assessment writing neglected to give solid, predictable and inadequate help for bringing down BAC limit. Best case scenario, the outcomes are blended and the methodological shortcomings in the examinations question the heartiness and veracity of the proof. The strategic the Traffic Injury Research Foundation (TIRF) is to diminish traffic-related passings and wounds. TIRF is a national, autonomous, beneficent street security establishment. Since its beginning in 1964, TIRF has gotten universally perceived for its achievements in a wide scope of branches of knowledge identified with distinguishing the reasons for street crashes and creating projects and strategies to successfully address them. â€Å"Since 1992, San Diego auto collision legal advisors have seen family members lament upon the illegitimate demise or genuine lasting injury of a friend or family member. â€Å"The alcoholic driver frequently endures, however appallingly, guiltless individuals are generally murdered. †  The objective is to capture more individuals that drive affected by liquor to get them off the streets. BAC level of . 03 to . 06 an individual starts to fell a quieting sensation, BAC level of . 06 to . 10 an individual arrives at this degree of inebriation, BAC level of . 11 to . 20 high inebriation levels show an individual that would show up extremely alcoholic, BAC level of . 20 and up having this high BAC brings about a person that starts to lose all judgment and engine work. What this all methods is that nobody ought to ever drive a vehicle in the wake of having a beverage. Fortunately the tipsy driving mishaps insights have really declined as of late. The fender bender insights are as yet not low enough, however it is a beginning. Individuals just ought not drive under the influence at all regardless of where they have to go. A ton of us drive vehicles. So for what reason do we need to impart the streets to individuals who decide to drink and afterward drive? Regardless of whether you â€Å"aren’t drunk† and are â€Å"just buzzed† try not to be on the streets. Regardless of whether you have ONE beverage, remain off the streets for some time. Wouldn’t it be a disaster to you knowing your better half, your kid, your companions, or cherished one stopped to exist here on earth due to a carless consumer? It would carry my reality to a smashing end. So don’t get in the driver's seat of a vehicle in the event that you have had a great deal to drink since it could be your life or an existence of others you could take while driving alcoholic.

Technology Information Systems Essay - 550 Words

Technology Information Systems (Essay Sample) Content: Technology Information SystemsName:Institution:Date:There are various advantages and disadvantages of building an information system from scratch and the essential needs that propel the prosperity of an organization via the implementation of a technology information system. The choice of system decided for a firm is usually determined by system developers or the consultants that a company refers to for advice for choice of system intended for the firm.Computer and informatics knowledge offers a great platform to the better understanding of integrating an information system into an organization. Preferably I would advise the building of a system from the ground up which gives room for accountability and better incorporation of the various entities into the development modules and models. One other advantage of designing and developing a system from scratch is that it allows analysts to be able to determine the system requirement during the analysis stage for all the pa rticipating expected end users of the system.The software modularity and metrics are usually encouraged at the early stages of construction of a software system via prototyping and outlining most of the system requirement from the end users perspective view. The preference for building the system up from the ground is to ensure that all the phases of the engineering process are covered appropriately.Also, in the case of any need for bug fixing and system upgrade, the specific stages can always be revisited for purposes of recoding using documented comment, for example on a waterfall model of software engineering and development. Open source software can be beneficial to a company if there is need for large and infinitely database platform for the company with an integration to a most universal hardware and software installation plugin platforms. The setback of an open source software is that it most of them are not customizable to organization needs, like company logos and copyright logo licensees encoded and branded on software systems generally like on web based applications.Most of the current software systems are being customized to be web based with high end encryption services to facilitate cloud computing and backing up of information on online databases to prevent the loss of data.The in house development of the software intended for the company involves the working of a team of developersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ expertise to function towards the project. Teamwork is essential to facilitate brainstorming and a wide range of ideas brought to the table for solving the problem statement. This is advantageous in that it saves on the costs that would be spent on purchasing a software package which has proven to be much expensive for most organization and most of the time quite ... Technology Information Systems Essay - 550 Words Technology Information Systems (Essay Sample) Content: Technology Information SystemsName:Institution:Date:There are various advantages and disadvantages of building an information system from scratch and the essential needs that propel the prosperity of an organization via the implementation of a technology information system. The choice of system decided for a firm is usually determined by system developers or the consultants that a company refers to for advice for choice of system intended for the firm.Computer and informatics knowledge offers a great platform to the better understanding of integrating an information system into an organization. Preferably I would advise the building of a system from the ground up which gives room for accountability and better incorporation of the various entities into the development modules and models. One other advantage of designing and developing a system from scratch is that it allows analysts to be able to determine the system requirement during the analysis stage for all the pa rticipating expected end users of the system.The software modularity and metrics are usually encouraged at the early stages of construction of a software system via prototyping and outlining most of the system requirement from the end users perspective view. The preference for building the system up from the ground is to ensure that all the phases of the engineering process are covered appropriately.Also, in the case of any need for bug fixing and system upgrade, the specific stages can always be revisited for purposes of recoding using documented comment, for example on a waterfall model of software engineering and development. Open source software can be beneficial to a company if there is need for large and infinitely database platform for the company with an integration to a most universal hardware and software installation plugin platforms. The setback of an open source software is that it most of them are not customizable to organization needs, like company logos and copyright logo licensees encoded and branded on software systems generally like on web based applications.Most of the current software systems are being customized to be web based with high end encryption services to facilitate cloud computing and backing up of information on online databases to prevent the loss of data.The in house development of the software intended for the company involves the working of a team of developersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ expertise to function towards the project. Teamwork is essential to facilitate brainstorming and a wide range of ideas brought to the table for solving the problem statement. This is advantageous in that it saves on the costs that would be spent on purchasing a software package which has proven to be much expensive for most organization and most of the time quite ...

Company Law and the Corporate Veil - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2023 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Introduction As the day company is formed, it can be said that the company is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“incorporatedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . As the company uniqueness is that it provides for effective separation of resources and managements of its resources and it is further compounded on the fact that the owner of the capital can limit his or her liability to the third parties. Therefore the company is recognized as a separate entity and it is treated in its own capacity. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Company Law and the Corporate Veil" essay for you Create order In nowadays business companies, it can be seen that companies have both advantages and disadvantages in measuring the limited liability of the shareholders on the basis that the company is liable for its debts and obligations. Therefore, double-edged sword is created which means it has both good and bad elements. In this assignment, details about the doctrine of separate legal entity will be analyzed. Also statements of features of company as separate legal entity and circumstances the veil of incorporation will be lifted will be analyzed with reference to some cases. Doctrine of separate legal entity In company law of Malaysia, a company is treated as a separate legal entity from its members constituted in it which is its shareholders and directors. This is the doctrine of separate legal principle. The company is a different separate body from its member. Thus, the members of the company are not liable for the company debts. For instance, when a company turn into a contr act, the company itself will personally liable for the contract rather than the shareholders and the directors. Therefore, a company is a corporate body. A corporation is an artificial legal person that exists independently of the individuals who at any given time are the members of the corporate body. This principle was established by the House of Lords in Salomon v Salomon Co Ltd[1]. The rule of Agency An agency is a relationship where one person consents or is deemed to have consented that the other person should act on its behalf so as to affect its relations with third parties. Features of Separate Legal Entity At the time the company is incorporated, it is a separate legal person, it brings forth some effect which can be the features of it. Under section 16(5) of the Companies Act 1965 states that, once a company had been incorporated, the company had all the ability as an incorporated company. For instances, it is means that the company can enjoys its right and f unction as a legal person. Company that incorporated is a legal personality that is created and recognized by the law as stated by Salleh Abbas F.J in Tan Lai v Mohamed bin Mahmud. When a company register under Companies Act, it becomes vested with corporate personality which is an independent legal person and separate from its members. For instance, the company is a legal person. In Salomon v. Salomon Co. Ltd. (1987)[2], unsecured creditors claimed that the company never had an existence of independent although it was incorporated. They claimed that it was Salomon himself trading under another name, but the House of Lords held Salomon Co. Ltd. must be regarded as an independent person from Salomon. This is because of the fact that the company was not role as an agent for the member. Thus, Salomon and the others are mere subscribers of the company although he owned all the issued shares. Hence, Salomon could enforce its rights against the company as a secured creditor. Furth ermore, the company also has the ability to sue and be sued in its own name. Therefore, a company can make legal action to enforce its right. It was established in the case Foss v Harbottle[3] where action brought by the members of the company made an injury complain towards the company and it was fail. Therefore the member could not take action on behalf of the company. Besides, a company has perpetual succession which means members may join and leave, but the company will continue go on. When a company become incorporation, it will continue operate until it is dissolved according to the Companies Act 1965. Under the case of Re Noel Tedman Holdings Pty Ltd[4], the court allowed the representative personal of the deceased to appoint the directors of the company so that the directors could allow the transfer of the shares to child. This proves that although the shareholders had leave but the company is still exiting and continue go on. Other than that, a company also has abilit y to own property on its own name. According to section 16(5) a company has power given to own personal land and other types of property. While company is separate legal person from its member, the member has no legal right and interest with the property and it is belongs to company. In case Macaura v Northern Assurance Co. Ltd[5], Macaura owned a tree plantation which was covered by an insurance policy. Later he sold the plantation to a company which he was the only shareholder. After the sale, Macaura continued to insure the plantation in his own name. A fire broke out and the plantation was destroyed. Macaura then attempted to claim on the insurance policy but the insurance company refused to pay. The issue was whether Macaura had an insurable interest at the time of the loss. It was help that the insurance company was right in not paying. The plantation company was a legal entity in its own right, separate from its shareholders. Other than that, in a corporate body, the share holders of the company can enjoy limited liability. While a company is a separate legal entity, the shareholders are not liable for the debts and the liability is limited by shares. Therefore, creditors have no rights to take any legal action against the shareholders. In case Ye Yut Een 1978[6], the director of the company is not liable for the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s debt. It is the company who had not complied with the procedures related to the retrenchment benefits. Lifting The Veil of Incorporation Although the company has privilege as separate legal entity, it must not be used for any unlawful or illegal business purposes, in case a fraudulent or dishonest use is made of the legal entity, the concerned individuals will not be allowed to take the shelter of the corporate personality. The court will disregard the corporate veil to see the real persons behind it. Generally, the law will not go behind this veil of incorporation to look at the membership of the company. But the courts will à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"lift the corporate veilà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in some exceptional cases. Salomon v Salomon Co Ltd case have decided that the members of the company are not liable for any contract that contracted by the company. This will cause they may have a chance hiding behind the veil to defraud the creditors and other parties that contracted with the company. The court will pierce the corporate veil by applying the principle known as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"piercing the corporate veilà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. When there is no entity separate from members, the court will pierce the corporate veil and take action. After that the court will make the company and its members liable for any breach of contract. The veil of incorporation can be lifted in according to situation provided under statutory provision and by judicial interpretation under the common law. For instance, section 36, Companies Act 1965 states that if the number of members of a company is reduced to below tw o and its carries on business more than six months, the person who is a member of the company during the time that is so carries on business after those six months, and is aware of it, the person is personally liable for all the debts that the company contracted after those six month and he may be sued therefor. According to the section 304(2), Companies Act 1965, together with the section 303(3), provide that an officers who knowingly contract a debts on behalf of the company. It means borrow money and knowing that that the company is most likely unable to pay the debt is guilty of an offence and on conviction be made personally liable to pay that debt. Under section 304(1), Companies Act 1965 provides that when a companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s intention is to purposely defraud its creditors, the veil of incorporation is lifted. In the course of the winding up of a company or in any proceedings against a company it appears to the court when hearing the application of the liquidat or or any creditor or contributory of the company that any business of the company has been carried on with intent to defraud creditors of the company or creditors of any other person or for any fraudulent purpose, the court may hold any persons who were knowingly parties to the fraud personally responsible for all or any of the debts or other liabilities of the company as the court directs. Under section 365(2), Companies Act 1965 provides that any payment of dividend not from profit is prohibited. Any payment made of dividends to shareholders is personally liable by the director towards the creditors of the company when there are no profits available. There are also situations where the court thinks it is appropriate and it will lift the veil of incorporation at common law. The situation whereby the veil of incorporation is lifted where the company is acting as agent or partner of the controlling or parent company. Group of the companies the problems can be complex. Subsidia ry own and fund money of a business has been held to do so as agent for the holding and parent company. So, holding and parent company actually operating business. This is applied in case Smith, Stone and Knight Ltd v Birmingham Corporation (1939)[7]. Besides, the veil of incorporation will be lifted when there is a group of companies, including holding and subsidiary company, the court can lift the veil and treat a company and its subsidiary as one economic unit. In case DHN food Distributors Ltd v Tower Hamlets London Borough Concil[8], subsidiary company owns a piece of land while the DHN which is parent company operated the business on the land. The local authority purchases the said land. The DHN claimed compensation for disruption. The local authority refused to pay the compensation on the grounds that the land did not belong to DHN. The court lifted the veil of establish that DHN is connected with the subsidiary company as treated as one economic unit, they did suffer a lo ss as a result of acquisition from the local authority and allowed to claim the compensation. At last, lifting the corporate veil can also assist in the prevention of fraud. In case Aspatra Sdn Bhd Ors v Bumiputra Bank Malaysia Berhad (BBMB)[9], Lorrain Osman, one of the director of Aspatra Sdn Bhd, was once a director of Bumiputra Bank Malaysia Berhad, must account for the secret profit he made in breach the fiduciary duty. To avoid detection Lorrain Osman had channeled the monies which is the secret profit he make into several companies that he controlled, one is the Aspatra Sdn Bhd. BBMB feared that the money Lorrain Osman took would leave Malaysia and applied for an injunction. The veil lifted to reveal that the assets of Aspatra Sdn Bhd belong to the Lorrain Osman and the injunction was accepted. Conclusion In conclusion, it clearly stated that the doctrine of separate legal entity have created double-edged swords to the shareholders of the company. Although it brings many features to the shareholders but it also have drawback towards the company itself and creditors in some situation. Hence, there will be some defects of incorporation. However, lifting the veil of incorporation by the court will reduce the defects of incorporation. [1] SALOMON v SALOMON CO LTD [1897] A.C. 22, House of Lords [2] SALOMON v SALOMON CO LTD [1897] A.C. 22, House of Lords [3] Foss v Harbottle(1843) 67 ER 189 [4] Re Noel Tedman Holdings Pty Ltd. (1967) QdR 561 [5] Macaura v Northern Assurance Co Ltd[1925] AC 619 [6] Yee Yut Ee(978)2 MLJ 142 [7] Smith, Stone Knight Ltd v Birmingham Corp[1939] 4 All ER 116 [8] DHN Food Distributors Ltd v Tower Hamlets London Borough Council[1976] 1 WLR 852 [9] Aspatra Sdn Bhd v Bank Bumiputra Malaysia Bhd (1988) 1 MLJ 97

Essay about International Relations - 1446 Words

International Relations As I look back on high school, I remember walking through the hallways and seeing people and groups of all kinds. The hallways were lined, side to side, with different groups of different people with different ideas and opinions. I, myself, was part of a clique also. However, my clique inter-mingled with other cliques as we exchanged our ideas, opinions, and experiences. There were some other cliques that did the same as they did not isolate themselves from the rest of high school life. However, there were also the other kinds of groups which committed themselves to that group, and they did isolate themselves from everyone else. Now, let’s take these cliques and turn them into full-scale nations. The high†¦show more content†¦This isolation from the rest of the world instills a sense of security within the people and within the government. They do not have to trust any other nations, nor do they have to rely on any other nations for anything. Basically, they decide that it would be best for them to work out political situations by themselves instead of looking to a foreign government as a model to deal with the situation. However, this also shows one of the weaknesses of localization. If a nation isolates itself politically from the rest of the nation, then there is a good chance that they will fall behind with the times; thus, they may lose face when it comes to their status on the world stage. Economically, globalization supports the expansion of trade, production, and investments to markets outside their own. This expansion is apparent when we look at the formation of such institutions as the European single market, the North American free trade area, the newly emerging Asian groupings, and the long overdue formation of the World Trade Organization. These institutions have allowed nations (that accept globalization) to experiment with several different markets in order to achieve economic gain. Large corporations now participate in foreign markets instead of remaining within a domestic market. They know that people are fascinated by the cultures of other races, and they implement facilities into other nations. For instance, James RosenauShow MoreRelatedInternational Relations Concepts1059 Words   |  4 PagesInternational Relations 210 Midterm Assignment 1. What does it mean to study international relations? The study of international relations pertains to the understanding of the rules of engagement between the sovereign states. This study falls under the domain of political science and international law studies. Based on the study of international relations, an individual gets an insight into the foreign policies of a government, the political dynamics that are prevalent in a region and overallRead MoreInternational Relation Theory And International Relations Theory1395 Words   |  6 PagesInternational relation theories can be used to explain the meanings of the songs and articles. Through music, the international relation theories can relate to the hidden messages about the song through the language. The two theories that best explain the songs, Imagine by John Lennon and Only Prettier by Miranda Lambert are neoliberalism and constructivism. Neoliberalism is an international relations theory in which, states cooperate together to reach a common goal. There is also the belief thatRead MoreThe Theory Of International Relations Essay1384 Words   |  6 Pagesgroups around the world, the international orders emerged to set how states relates to each other based on the amount of power that they have and the interests they share at different moments of the history. With the evolution of societies, international orders changes because of a major clash between great powers where it is necessary a zero sum situation. To explain this, the paradigms of international relations will be the main tool. The rise of an international order is a result of the accumulationRead MoreAn Introduction Of International Relations1702 Words   |  7 Pages an introduction of International Relations, my views have consistently been fluid. From week to week with new information and new theories presented, researched and analysed along with my increasing knowledge of attributes and models of these principles. I have had assimilations, with the key concepts of nearly all theories, yet none sat wholly in my perception of international relations. I found concepts of the disciplines to be too black and white. International relations is such a complicatedRead MoreThe Theory Of International Relations1402 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferent theory of how international relations should operate, such as Liberalism, Realism, Marxism, Constructivism, the English school often called the international society, Feminism, Green theory, Hegemonic stability theory, Postmodernism and Post colonialism. This essay wil l be focus on realism and how relevant the realist perspective is in the 21st century international relations. Historically, Realism is the most important approach to discipline of international relations (Nicholson, 2002). TheRead MoreThe Theory Of International Relations1535 Words   |  7 PagesWhen studying International Relations, there are various theories involved, three of these theories being: realism, liberalism, and constructivism. A theory is fundamentally ideas and complex concepts that have their own way of understanding something. These theories are used in evaluating world politics, by coming up with a unique way of identifying and explaining the events that occur around the world (Mingst 5). The theories help explain different perspectives on how the world system functions;Read More International Relations Essay2632 Words   |  11 PagesThe first paradigm of international relations is the theory of Realism. Realism is focused on ideas of self-interest and the balance of power. Realism is also divided into two categories, classical realism and neo-realism. Famous political theorist, Hans Morgenthau was a classical realist who believed that national interest was based on three elements, balance of power, military force, and self interest (Kleinberg 2010, 32). He uses four levels of analysis to evaluate the power of a state. The firstRead MoreThe Theories of International Relations2314 Words   |  10 Pagesof international relations are the end results of good international relations and system in the world today, most of this theories are not well implemented in most countries which has resulted on conflicts among nations, political instabilities, secessions and all other political unrest. This essay will shed more light on the phases of international relations from the individual stage to the international stage. Firstly, this essay will explain what the theories of international relations areRead MorePower in International Relations2084 Words   |  8 PagesThe conception is power in International Relations is a key to a better understanding of the discipline. In many cases the definition of power affects the way in which many issues are tackled in foreign policy or security. There are many theories that try to deal with the conception of power, however they make a rather large number of assumptions that might make them difficult to applicable in real life. Furthermore many of them does not take into consideration that power evolves, therefore if weRead MoreMalaysias International Relations Essay956 Words   |  4 PagesMalaysian particularly on the aspect of international relations in order to analyze the behavior pattern of the characteristics of international politics, utility diverse historical junctures in which shifting bases of state power, paths of growth, and official manipulation of social identities join in the regulation of social order that facilitates capital accrual while maintaining state legitimacy in a multi-ethnic context. Therefore the term international relations can be describe in various dimensions

Project Management and Innovation Past and Future free essay sample

It is unsurprising that development of innovation is often run as a project. Yet, theoretically both project management and innovation studies have evolved over time as distinctively separate disciplines. In this paper we make an attempt to conceptualize the innovation project management and past as well as future of same. By doing so, we contribute to the nascent academic debate on the interplay between innovation and project management. This paper is concerned with three topics and the interplay between them, namely â€Å"Innovation†, â€Å"Research and Development (RD)† and â€Å"Project Management†. The interest in these topics has exploded recently as they emerged both on the policy agenda and in the corporate strategies. The contribution of technological innovation to national economic growth has been well established in the economic literature. In the last couple of decades, new technologies, new industries, and new business models have powered impressive gains in productivity and GDP growth. We will write a custom essay sample on Project Management and Innovation Past and Future or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page While originally there was a tendency to equate RD and innovation, contemporary understanding of innovation is much broader than purely RD. RD is one component of innovation activities and knowledge creation among others. Innovation emerges as a pervasive and complex force, not only in the high-tech sectors in advanced economies, but also as a phenomenon existing in low-tech industry of developing, or catching-up economies. Still, the link between RD and innovation is often at the core of the innovation studies. Presently, we are witnessing â€Å"projectification† of the world as a growing number of specialists organise their work in projects rather than on on-going functional basis. The connection between RD and project management has a long history. Most tools of project management have been developed from the management of RD, often with military purposes (Lorell, 1995). The most vivid example of managing RD projects in the public sector is the PRINCE2 method (UK OGC, 2005). Due to the above mentioned difference between RD and innovation, RD projects should be distinguished from innovation projects too. Innovation is a non-linear process, not necessarily technology-led and may not necessarily result from formal RD investments. Innovation is the exploration and exploitation of new ideas and recombination of existing knowledge in the pursuit of sustained competitive advantage. Besides, both innovation and RD projects by their nature differ from conventional projects. Thus, there is a need to examine the Innovation Project Management (IPM) as a distinctive area of managing innovation in projects, using the tools and methods of the project management. The Evolution of Project Management Theory The genesis of the ideas that led to the development of modern project management can arguably be traced back to the protestant reformation of the 15th century. The Protestants and later the Puritans introduced a number of ideas including ‘reductionism’, ‘individualism’ and the ‘protestant work ethic’ (PWE) that resonate strongly in the spirit of modern project management. Reductionism focuses on removing unnecessary elements of a process or ‘ceremony’ and then breaking the process down into its smallest task or unit to ‘understand’ how it works. Individualism assumes we are active, independent agents who can manage risks and create ideas. These ideas are made into ‘real things’ by social actions contingent upon the availability of a language to describe them. The PWE focuses on the intrinsic value of work. Prior to the protestant reformation most people saw work either as a necessary evil, or as a means to an end. For Protestants, serving God included participating in and working hard at worldly activities as this was part of God’s purpose for each individual. From the perspective of the evolution of modern project management, these ideas were incorporated into two key philosophies, Liberalism and Newtonianism. Liberalism included the ideas of capitalism (Adam Smith), the division of labour, and that an industrious lifestyle would lead to wealthy societies Newton saw the world as a harmonious mechanism controlled by a ‘universal law’. Applying scientific observations to parts of the whole would allow understanding and insights to occur and eventually a complete understanding. LITERATURE REVIEW In this paper we seek to establish bridges between two distinctive disciplines – project management and innovation management (innovation studies). Despite seemingly interrelated nature of both subjects, these two research domains have been developing relatively isolated from each other. Innovation Studies Innovation studies are rooted in the seminal writing of Joseph Schumpeter in the 1920s-1930s (e. g. Schumpeter, 1934), whose ideas started to gain popularity in the 1960s, as the general interest among policymakers and scholars in technological change, RD and innovation increased. The field formed as a distinctive academic discipline from the 1980s. Scholars like Richard Nelson, Chris Freeman, Bengt-Ake Lundvall, Keith Pavitt, Luc Soete, Giovanni Dosi, Jan Fagerberg, Bart Verspagen, Eric von Hippel and others have shaped and formed this discipline. The seminal publications in the area include, inter alia, Freeman (1982), Freeman and Soete (1997), Lundvall (1992), Nelson and Winter (1977, 1982), von Hippel (1988). Regarding the definition of innovation – a general consensus has been achieved among innovation scholars who broadly understand this phenomenon as a transformation of knowledge into new products, processes and services. An in-depth review of the innovation literature is beyond the scope of this paper (refer to Fagerberg (2004) for such analysis). Our intention is to outline main directions of research. In a recent paper, Fagerberg and Verspagen (2009) provide a comprehensive analysis of the cognitive and organizational characteristics of the emerging field of innovation studies and consider its prospects and challenges. The authors trace evolution and dynamics of the field. Reflecting the complex nature of innovation, the field of innovation studies unites various academic disciplines. For examples, Fagerberg and Verspagen (2009) define four main clusters of innovation scholars. They are â€Å"Management† (cluster 1), â€Å"Schumpeter Crowd† (cluster 2), â€Å"Geography and Policy† (cluster 3. 1), Periphery† (cluster 3. 2) and â€Å"Industrial Economics† (cluster 4). For the purposes of our analysis we shall have a closer look at the â€Å"Management† cluster, since it is here where the connection between innovation and Project Management can be found. In fact â€Å"Management† is the smallest cluster within the entire network of innovation scholars, consisting of only 22 scholars, mainly sociologists and management scholars, with a geographical bias towards the USA. This small number of scholars (22) is in sharp contrast with the biggest clusters ? â€Å"Geography and Policy† (298 scholars) or â€Å"Schumpeter Crowd† (309). In terms of publication preferences, apart from Research Policy, the favorite journal for innovation scholars, members of â€Å"Management† cluster see management journals as the most relevant publishing outlets, particularly Journal of Product Innovation Management, Management Science and Strategic Management Journal. Fagerberg and Verspagen (2009, p. 29) see a strong link between innovation and management and provide a following description: â€Å"Management is to some extent a cross-disciplinary field by default and firm-level innovation falls naturally within its portfolio. †¦. So between innovation studies and management there clearly is some common ground†. Project Management The project management as a human activity has a long history; e. g. construction of Egyptian pyramids in 2000 BC may be regarded as a project activity. However, the start for the modern Project Management era, as a distinctive research area, was in the 1950s. Maylor (2005) determines three major stages of the PM historical development. Before the 1950s, the PM as such was not recognized. In the 1950s, tools and techniques were developed to support the management of complex projects. The dominant thinking was based on â€Å"one best way† approach, based on numerical methods. The third stage, from the 1990s onwards is characterized by the changing environment in which projects take place. It is more and more realized that a project management approach should be contingent upon its context. It is also noted that a shift is observed over time in development of project management – from focus on sole project management to the broader management of projects and strategic project management (Fangel, 1993; Morris, 1994; Bryde, 2003). Reflecting these changes in the managerial practices, the body of academic literature on PM has evolved and burgeoned. International Journal of Project Management and Project Management Journals became the flagship publication outlets for PM scholars and practitioners. A large number of (managerial) handbooks outlining the methods and techniques of PM have been published, e. g. Andersen et al (2004), Bruijn et al (2004) Kerzner (2005), Maylor (2005), Meredith and Mantel (2006), Muller (2009), Roberts (2007), Turner (1999), Turner and Turner (2008). Despite a growing number of publications, there is no unified theoretical basis and there is no unified theory of project management, due to its multidisciplinary nature (Smyth and Morris, 2007). Project management has a more applied nature than other management disciplines. Although the PM has formed as a distinct research field, there is no universal, generally accepted definition of a project and project management. Turner (1999) develops a generic definition of a project: A project is an endeavor in which human, financial and material resources are organized in a novel way to undertake a unique scope of work, of given specification, which constraints of cost and time, so as to achieve beneficial change defined by quantitative and qualitative objectives. There have been several attempts to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art research in PM and outline its trends and future directions (e. g. , PMI, 2004; Betts and Lansley, 1995; Themistocleous and Wearne, 2003; Crawford et al, 2006; Kloppenberg and Opfer, 2002). In a recent article, Kwak and Anbari (2009) review relevant academic journals and identify eight allied disciplines, in which PM is being applied and developed. These disciplines include such areas as Operation Management, Organizational Behavior, Information Technology, Engineering and Construction, Strategy/Integration, Project Finance and Accounting, and Quality and Management. Notably, one of these eight allied disciplines is â€Å"Technology Application / Innovation / New Product Development / Research and Development†. The authors found that only 11% of journal publications on the subject of project management fell under the â€Å"Innovation† heading. Yet, importantly, this area showed sustained upward interest, and hence the number of publications, since the 1960s. Overall, Kwak and Anbari (2009) conclude that the mainstream PM research proceeds largely in the â€Å"Strategy / Integration / Portfolio Management / Value of PM / Marketing† direction (30% of all publications examined by the authors). PM AND INNOVATION: THE PAST Projects in one form or another have been undertaken for millennia, but it was only in the latter part of the 20th century people started talking about ‘project management’. Earlier endeavors were seen as acts of worship, engineering or nation building. And the people controlling the endeavors saw themselves as members of groups focused on specific callings such as generals, priests and architects. There is an important distinction to be drawn here between projects: ‘a temporary Endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result’ and the profession of project management; or at least ‘modern project management’. For a discipline to be considered a profession a number of attributes are generally considered necessary; these are: †¢ Practitioners are required to meet formal educational and entry requirements, †¢ autonomy over the terms and conditions of practice, a code of ethics, †¢ a commitment to service ideals, †¢ a monopoly over a discrete body of knowledge and related skills. Within this context, project management is best considered an ‘emerging profession’ that has developed during the last 30 to 40 years. Over this period project management associations around the world have developed a generally consistent view of the processes involved in ‘project management’, encoded these views into ‘Bodies of Knowledge’ (BoKs), described competent behaviors and are now certifying knowledgeable and/or competent ‘Project Managers’. Certainly, if ‘modern project management’ does not qualify as a fully fledged profession at this point in time, it will evolve into one fairly quickly. The Evolution of Project Management Tools The central theme running through the various project management concepts is that project management is an integrative process that has at its core, the balancing of the ‘iron triangle’ of time, cost and output. All three facets must be present for a management process to be considered project management. The evolution of cost and scope control into relatively precise processes occurred during the 14th and 18th Centuries respectively. Time management lacked effective measurement and control until the emergence of ‘critical path’ scheduling in the 1960s. The branch of management that gave rise to the development of the Critical Path Method of scheduling was Operational Research (OR). OR is an interdisciplinary science which uses methods such as mathematical modeling and statistics to assist decision making in complex real-world situations. It is distinguished by its ability to look at and improve an entire system, rather than concentrating on specific processes which was the focus of Taylor’s ‘scientific management’. The growth of OR was facilitated by the increasing availability and power of computers which were needed to carry out the large numbers of calculations typically required to analyze a system. [pic] Figure 1. The Iron Triangle The first ‘project’ to add science to the process of time control was undertaken by Kelley and Walker to develop the Critical Path Method (CPM) for E. I. du Pont de Numours. In 1956/57 Kelly and Walker started developing the algorithms that became CPM. The program they developed was trialled on plant shutdowns in 1957 And the first paper on critical path scheduling was published in 1959. The critical meeting to approve this project was held on the 7th May 1957 in Newark, Delaware, where DuPont and Remington Rand jointly committed US$226,400 to fund the project. The foundations of modern project management were laid in 1957; but it took another 12 years before Dr Martin Barnes first described the ‘iron triangle’ of time, cost and output in a course he developed for his UK clients in 1969 called ‘Time and Money in Contract Control’. PM AND INNOVATION: THE FUTURE Defining PM for Future The biggest challenge facing project management is answering the question ‘what is a project? ’ Until this question can be answered unambiguously the foundation of project management cannot be defined. Current definitions such as the PMBOK’s ‘a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result’ can apply to the baking of a cake as easily as the construction of a multi story building. They are both temporary endeavors to create a unique outcome but in all probability the baking of a cake is not a project. The traditional view of projects embedded in the various BoKs is derived from both the management theories underpinning ‘modern project management’ and the industrial base of early project management practitioners (construction / defense / engineering). The BoKs tend to treat projects as naturally occurring entities that need to be managed. This is an easy enough assumption when focusing on a building or a battle ship. There is a physical presence that occupies a defined space that needs creating in a defined timeframe to a defined scope. This view assumes project exists and project management is about transforming the raw materials of the project into a finished and useful form. Consequently it is the presence of the project itself that defines ‘project management’. The PMBOKs version is ‘The application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements’. However, if we cannot precisely define a ‘project’, there is no basis for project management and consequently no foundation for a useable theory of project management. Researchers and academics are starting to reverse the idea that a project is necessary for project management to exist and suggest it is the application of ‘project management’ to an endeavour that creates a project. Some of the ideas being discussed include: †¢ Projects as ‘Temporary Knowledge Organizations (TKOs)’. This school of thought focuses on the idea that the primary instrument of project management is the project team and the recognition that predictability is not a reality of project management. Some key ideas include: o The concept of the project team as a ‘complex adaptive system (or organism)’, living on the ‘edge of chaos’; responding and adapting to its surroundings (ie the project’s stakeholders) offers one new set of insights. o The idea of ‘Nonlinearity’ suggests that you can do the same thing several times over and get completely different results. Small differences may lead to big changes whilst big variations may have minimal effect. This idea questions the validity of ‘detailed programming’ attempting to predict the path of a project (the ‘butterfly effect’, constrained by ‘strange attractors’). The concept of ‘Complex Responsive Processes of Relating’ (CRPR) puts emphasis on the interaction among people and the essentially responsive and participative nature of the human processes of organizing and relating. According to the modern trend in these field, consequence of accepting these theories is to shift the focus of ‘project management’ from the object of the project to the people involved in the project (ie, its stakeholders), and to recognize that it is people who create the project, work on the project and close the project with all innovation. Consequently the purpose of most if not all project ‘control documents’ such as schedules and cost plans shift from being an attempt to ‘control the future’ this is impossible; to a process for communicating with and influencing stakeholders to encourage and guide their involvement in the project. Notwithstanding the advantages of project management, it would be unreasonable to expect all innovation to be carried out through projects. In fact, many ideas are generated by employees in a company on a regular basis, not only within project teams. Thus, there is certainly a room for functional, on-going organization of innovation process. Even more so, in certain situations project management can be detrimental to innovation. Aggeri and Segrestin (2007) show that the recent project development methods in automotive industry can induce negative effects on collective learning processes and these effects have managerial implications for innovative developments. Argument for Managing Innovation in Projects The origins of project management in the manufacturing and construction ndustries determine an engineering perspective, viewing a project as a task-focused entity, proceeding in a linear or similar way from the point of initiation to implementation. This view prevailed until comparatively recently. This view is seemingly in stark contrast with the nature of innovation. It is increasingly being acknowledged that the innovation is a complex non-linear process. The earliest view on innovation process as a pipeline model (whereby a given input is transformed to a specific output) has been largely abandoned. Presently, however, project management is increasingly recognised as a key generic skill for business management (Fangel, 1993), rather than a planning-oriented technique or an application of engineering sciences and optimization theory, in which project management has its roots (Soderlund, 2004). The â€Å"management by projects† has emerged as general mode of organizing for all forms of enterprise (Turner 2003). This new conceptualization of project management enables to embrace the non-linear nature of innovation. Even a creative and non-linear nature of innovation is often characterized as an organizational or management process, rather than spontaneous improvisation. Davila et al. (2006) state, Innovation, like many business functions, is a management process that requires specific tools, rules, and discipline. Hence, a project, with its defined objective, scope, budget and limitations, can be an appropriate setting of innovation. The other closely linked element in the new world of project management with innovation is embracing uncertainty. Writing on paper cannot control the future! Schedules do not control time; cost plans do not control costs. Plans outline a possible future and provided a basis for recognizing when things ‘are not going to plan’. For innovation project management to succeed, both project and senior management are going to need to embrace uncertainty and learn skills to manage it rather than expecting predictability and inevitably being disappointed by the variability of ‘reality’ as it unfolds. Challenges of Empirical Studies Scarcity and unreliability, or even lack of data poses a big challenge in research in both innovation and project management. A macro-level research n PM is obstructed by the lack of data on the number of projects, carried out by firms and public institutions, and their characteristics. Problems stem from the definition of a project and the non-disclosure policy of most companies. In such circumstances, PM research has tended to rely on case-studies or on small-scale tailor-made surveys. There i s a widely acknowledged lack of large-scale empirical research in PM (Kloppenborg and Opfer, 2002; Soderlund, 2004). It is claimed that the Independent Project Analysis (IPA) is the market leader in quantitative analysis of project management systems, i. . in project evaluation and project system benchmarking (IPA, 2007). All IPA analyses and research are based on proprietary databases. As of mid-2009, IPA’s databases contain more than 11,000 projects of all sizes ($20,000 to $25 billion) executed across the world. Each year, approximately 1,000 projects are added with representation from the many different industries served by IPA. Each project in our databases is characterized by over 2,000 project attributes, including technology, project scope, project type, project costs, year of authorization, and geographical location (IPA 2009). All information contained in the IPA databases is carefully protected and kept as confidential proprietary data (IPA, 2009). Due to the issues of confidentiality, access for academic researchers is restricted. In the innovation field, academic community has been increasingly using several sources of data, such as granted patents, tailor-made surveys, as well as other data provided by national statistical offices. European research on innovation uses several instruments to obtain data on innovation indicators and to assess national innovation performance. The two main instruments are the Community Innovation Survey (CIS) and the European Innovation Scorecard (EIS). As of 2009, five successful CIS surveys have been carried out: CIS1 (1992), CIS2 (1996), CIS3 (2001), CIS4 (2004) and CIS 2006. Each new round was characterized by an improved questionnaire, in line with the evolution of understanding of the phenomenon of innovation. The more recent surveys embraced understanding of innovation in a broader sense, and for example, paid more attention to service innovations. Further, it is expected that the future surveys will also include management techniques, organizational change, environmental benefits, and design and marketing issues. We argue that, taken into consideration the growing relevance of innovation projects, a clearer and explicit wording should be used in CIS questionnaire for determining whether innovation is organized and carried out in projects or functionally. CONCLUSIONS Innovation studies and project management as distinctive disciplines have been developing in a relative isolation from each other. The analysis in innovation studies domain has rarely explored the mechanisms and patterns of innovation in projects in contrast to traditional (functional or hierarchical) organization. However, since innovation management in companies is increasingly organized in projects, it is of utmost importance to directly address the interplay between innovation management and project management. In this paper, based on the relevant literature and insights from practice, we conceptually examined the relationships between these two research areas aiming at bridging the gap between them. It is widely acknowledged within the discipline of innovation studies that there is a high percentage of failure of innovation initiatives, in other words, failure is inevitable when managing innovation. The key skill set of the competent project manager will be identifying and managing stakeholder expectations using tools such as the Stakeholder circle to help identify the project’s key stakeholders. Innovation is perceived as a luxury, not as a necessity. Therefore, it is of high priority to manage innovation effectively and efficiently with constrained budgets.